"-ing" Modifiers

1. Notes

Point 1: A comma followed by an -ing word generally does NOT modify the noun (if any) right before the comma. That is, a "comma -ing" set-up is not a traditional noun modifier; it is an adverbial modifier (modifying things other than nouns only).

Point 2: The easiest way to test a "comma -ing" is to think of it as modifying the clause preceding the comma, focusing on the noun and the verb (and object, if applicable - but you can really just concentrate on the noun and verb). If it makes sense to modify the noun and the verb, then it's okay. If it doesn't, then it's not.

Point 3: An "-ed" modifier is a noun modifier, not an adverbial modifier, and should modify the closest primary noun preceding it (in the "comma -ed" setup).

Point 4: Typically, a "comma preposition" set-up (with is a preposition) is an adverbial modifier, meaning it modifies the previous clause (the diet was largely vegetarian).

When we have an isolated noun phrase set off by commas (such as "meat a rarity"), that's called an "appositive" and it is supposed to be a noun modifier. The purpose of an appositive is to name or rename the noun or noun phrase next to it.

Example: The dog, a Golden Retriever, is yellow.
"a Golden Retriever" is an appositive - it's a noun that "renames" the word "dog" (in this case, telling us what kind of dog).
The Golden Retriever, a dog with a yellow coat, is a popular breed.
"a dog with a yellow coat" is an appositive. This time, it's defining "A Golden Retriever."

http://www.beatthegmat.com/ing-modifier-three-different-versions-in-og-t38943-15.html

Example

When you have 2 verbs separated only by a comma and the second one is in conjugated form, you just can't do that period. 

She is at the store, buy milk. That's not an acceptable sentence because the verb "buy" is in conjugated form but is separated from the rest of the sentence only by a comma. The implication is that the "buy milk" portion has something to do with the first part of the sentence (see example 2 below), but even then, this is still not in the correct form.

She is at the store, buying milk. "Buying" is in participle form; it's not acting as a verb in this sentence. Instead, it is indicating a modifier that has something to do with or is a consequence of the main clause. Why is she at the store? She's buying milk. 

She went to the store, and she bought milk. These two things are now separate actions - both things that "she" did, but separate from each other. Maybe she went to the store yesterday and maybe she bought milk three days ago from some other store. We don't know.

Point 5: Most often, hyphen modifiers are noun modifiers, but I would really need to see the specific example. 

Que: Only seven people this century have been killed by the great white shark, the man-eater of the movies-less than those killed by bee stings. 

A. movies-less than those 
B. movies-fewer than have been 
C. movies, which is less than those 
D. movies, a number lower than the people 
E. movies, fewer than the ones

Point 6:

a)   noun + that <modifying phrase> 

b)       verb + that <independent clause>

Aa a general rule, yes. The word "that" has multiple uses (unlike who, which, etc, which pretty much function as relative pronouns). 

The woman thought that the cat was cute. 
subj verb THAT subj verb obj 

There are certain sentence set-ups (and certain verbs) that tend to be structured as the above sentence is structured - subj verb THAT subj verb obj. That entire thing is considered the core sentence. 

You can't do the same thing with who or which. 

But, "that" can also introduce a modifying phrase, and we'll mostly see that with a noun or noun phrase first, not a conjugated verb.

Point 6: it is commonly said that "being in general is always wrong in GMAT"... 

Can you please tell in which cases, being is correct usage ? How to identify the same? Also kindly tell does "being" denotes present tense or past tense or it can be used with all tenses?

Almost always, yes - but not always. There are 1 or 2 GMATPrep questions that include "being" in the correct answer and I've seen a couple of others over the years. 

In general, try the given sentence with and without the word being (if a choice substitutes another word or word form, use that instead). If you have the option, choose the choice that works without the word "being." 

BUT, save that kind of consideration for last. Deal with whatever else you can deal with first, and use "being" as a kind of tiebreak. (Same with redundancy / awkwardness.) 

"Being" can be used correctly in verb form as a present participle and is often passive when used this way. It can also be used as a gerund. Eg: 

She is being recruited by the best team in the league. 
The security guard was hired to prevent the jewels from being stolen. 

But again - back to what I said before. I do NOT use "being" as a starting point. I deal with everything else first and see whether I have an acceptable option that doesn't use "being." If I only have options left that use "being," then I can forget about debating that particular word. If I have options left that don't use "being," then I prefer one that does not use that word.

Example:

For the farmer who takes care to keep them cool, providing them with high energy feed and milking them regularly, Holstein cows are producing an average of 2275 gallons of milk each year. 

A. providing them with high energy feed and milking them regularly, Holstein cows are producing 
B. providing them with high energy feed ,and milked regularly, the Holstein cow produces 
C. provided with high energy feed, and milking them regularly, Holstein cows are producing 
D. provided with high energy feed ,and milked regularly, the Holstein cow produces 
E. provided with high energy feed ,and milked regularly, the Holstein cows will produce 

Example:

The increased popularity and availability of televisions has led to the decline of regional dialects, language variations which originate from diverse ethnic and cultural heritages and perpetuated by geographic isolation. 
(A) which originate from diverse ethnic and cultural heritages and perpetuated 
(B) that originated from diverse ethnic and cultural heritages and perpetuated 
(C) originated from diverse ethnic and cultural heritages and perpetuated 
(D) originating from diverse ethnic and cultural heritages and perpetuated 
(E) originating from diverse ethnic and cultural heritages and perpetating

Point :  It is okay to have a present participle parallel to a past participle. That's still considered parallel because they are both participles. 

Example:

The growth of the railroads led to the abolition of local times, which was determined by when the sun reached the observer's meridian and differing from city to city, and to the establishment of regional times. 

(A) which was determined by when the sun reached the observer's meridian and differing 
(B) which was determined by when the sun reached the observer's meridian and which differed 
(C) which were determined by when the sun reached the observer's meridian and differing 
(D) determined by when the sun reached the observer's meridian and differed 
(E) determined by when the sun reached the observer's meridian and differing 

Example:

The Glass House Mountains in Queensland, Australia, were sighted in 1770 by the English navigator Captain James Cook, by whom they were named supposedly because its sheer wet rocks glistened like glass.

(A) by whom they were named supposedly because its

(B) by whom they were named supposedly and their

(C) naming them supposedly since their

(D) who so named them supposedly because their

(E) who so named it since supposedly their

Example:

Noting that the Federal Reserve had raised a key short-term interest rate last month, analysts said that they expected orders for durable goods to decline soon because rising interest rates makes it more expensive to buy them on credit. 

1) rising interest rates makes it more expensive to buy them on credit
2) rising interest rates make buying on credit more expensive 
3) a rise in interest rates make it more expensive to buy on credit 
4) a rise in interest rates make buying on credit more expensive 
5) a rise in interest rates makes it more expensive for them to be bought on credit 

Example:

Classical guitar was neither prestigious nor was often played in concert halls until it was revived by Andres Segovia in the mid-twentieth century, having been won over by the instrument's sound despite its relative obscurity. 

a. Classical guitar was neither prestigious nor was often played in concert halls until it was revived by Andres Segovia in the mid-twentieth century, having been won over by the instrument's sound despite its relative obscurity. 

b. Classical guitar was neither prestigious nor played often in concert halls until it was revived by Andres Segovia in the mid-twentieth century, having been won over by the instrument's sound despite its relative obscurity. 

c. Classical guitar was not prestigious and was not often played in concert halls until Andres Segovia revived it in the mid-twentieth century, after he was won over by the sound despite the instrument's relative obscurity. 


d. Classical guitar did not have prestige nor was it performed often in concert halls until its revival by Andres Segovia, who in the mid-twentieth century was won over by the instrument's sound despite its relative obscurity. 

e. Classical guitar was neither prestigious nor was often played in concert halls until Andres Segovia revived it in the mid-twentieth century, when he was won over by the sound of the relatively obscure instrument

Example:

It was only after Katharine Graham became publisher of The Washington Post in 1963 that it moved into the first rank of American newspapers, and it was under her command that the paper won high praise for its unrelenting reporting of the Watergate scandal. 

A) It was only after Katharine Graham became publisher of The Washington Post in 1963 that it moved into the first rank of American newspapers, and it was under her command that the paper won high praise 
B) It was only after Katharine Graham's becoming publisher of The Washington Post in 1963 that it moved into the first rank of American newspapers, and under her command it had won high praise 
C) Katharine Graham became publisher of The Washington Post in 1963 and only after that did it move into the first rank of American newspapers, having won high praise under her command 
D) Moving into the first rank of American newspapers only after Katharine Graham became its publisher in 1963, The Washington Post, winning high praise under her command 
E) Moving into the first rank of American newspapers only after Katharine Grahame's becoming its publisher in 1963, The Washington Post won high praise under her command 

1. For members of the seventeenth century Ashanti nation in Africa, animal-hide shields with wooden frames were essential items of military equipment, a method to protect warriors against enemy arrows and spears. 
   
   A) a method to protect 
   B) as a method protecting 
   C) protecting 
   D) as a protection of 
   E) to protect 
   
   
2. The diet of the ordinary Greek in classical times was largely vegetarian-vegetables, fresh cheese, oatmeal, and meal cakes, and meat rarely
   
   a) and meat rarely
   b) and meat was rare 
   c) with meat as rare 
   d) meat a rarity 
   e) with meat as a rarity

3. Displays of the aurora barealis, or "nouthern lights", can heat the atmosphere over the Arctic enough to affect the trajectories of ballistic missiles, induce electric currents that can cause blackouts in some areas and corrosion in north-south pipelines 
   
   a) to affect the trajectories of ballistic missiles, induce
   b) that the trajectories of ballistic missiles are affected, induce 
   c) that it affects the trajectories of ballistic missiles, induces 
   d) that the trajectories of ballistic missiles are affected and induces 
   e) to affect the trajectories of ballistic missiles and induce
   
   

OE : I can run fast enough to affect the spin of the Earth, induce a heat wave. 
So, can I run fast enough to (1) affect something and (2) induce something else? If yes, then the sentence might read: I can run fast enough to affect the spin of the Earth and induce a heat wave. So, I'm so fast that these two separate things happen. 
Or can I run fast enough to affect the spin, which then induces a heat wave? If so, then the sentence might read: I can run fast enough to affect the spin of the Earth, inducing a heat wave. 
One or the other - but not "Earth, induce."